Day 6 came right after Day 5...
Today I woke up around 10:30 and got up and started to get ready for my workout. I spent the first 3o minutes of my day praying and reading scripture. Lastnight, some guys and I got together to catch up and pray for one another! I was wanting to go to the throne for my friends.
I got to thinking about Sarah and was being a little self-fish and texted her and said, "COME TO GEORGIA" I sent her the message and never heard back from her! See her plane was leaving NC around 10 or so, so I figured she was on the plane headed back to Texas. I got out of bed an began putting on workout clothes, when my phone finally made noise, (I got a new message) I noticed it was a picture message and it was from Sarah, the title was "I'M IN GEORGIA" it was a picture of a welcome to Georgia sign. I texted her back and was like, why are you teasing me? I than received another picture message from her, titled "See..well sorta..my head is...." this picture indeed had her head in it, along with the sign... I than was like, what is going on? She quick called me and said, "I am 90 miles north of Atl" I was totally shocked, and I could not think or say anything straight. She told me to get cleaned up and head up towards ATL, and think about where we wanted to eat for lunch. I was like ok! So, I got cleaned up, and began driving up to Atlanta.
We decided to meet at my brother house, that way it would be a local spot she would be able to use her GPS too. I pulled up and sure enough I saw a car with an Illionois liscence plate (does anyone know why most rental cars have Illionis plates?) Sure enough, my beautiful girlfriend was sitting behind the wheel. I jumped out of my truck and hurried over to her. When our eyes meet, we both just had big smiles on our faces! I was just so stinking excited I wanted to jump up and down like it was Christmas morning, and I just got a nerf football! (that was a great Christmas gift when I was a kid)
I introduced Sarah to my brother, he was home, doing some work and than I wanted to take her to my favorite pizza place in Atlanta, Fillini's. Fillini's is a great place to eat pizza and it just famous too! We actually had their special, so it had everything on it! I actually have two slices left, maybe to eat for dinner tonight. Anywho, back to the story....
After lunch, Sarah and I drove around Atlanta, and I showed her where I grew up as a child. I took her to see my house in Dunwoody, and even the High School! By this time, our sweet tooth's were both active, so a stop at Brusters for some double chocolate chunk did the trick.
Our next stop was back at my brothers house, we waited for him to finish up on some work, and we all went out to dinner. I wanted to go somewhere that you cant find in every town. See Sarah travels and my brother travel alot for their jobs, and I guess when you travel, there is this unspoken rule (or maybe its spoken) to not eat at any chains. I guess I understood it, I don't travel, but it makes sense. I suggested seafood, (Sushi) and Brent suggested we go to Goldfish. It is located over at the Perimeter Mall (where I used to hang out as a kid) Sarah ordered some amazing red snapper, Brent had Sushi, and so did I. It was very good. We were crunched for time, cause Sarah was leaving Atlanta around 10:15 to travel back to Texas.
Before Sarah had to leave for the airport, we spent about 45 minutes talking and praying for one another. One of the most amazing things I like about Sarah is her prayer life. The girl can flat out pray! I am very thankful that she prays for many things, including us. It was great, to be standing in the parking lot holding one another and praying to our Father in Heaven! It was Fantastic. We said our goodbyes, and she drove to the airport, and I drove back to Carrollton.
Sarah, You continue to amaze me everyday! I have never been surprised in my life! Yesterday, was the best surprise anyone has ever given me. The pure fact that you put me before yourself, completely humbles me! Thank you for driving 5 hours to spend the day with me. I hope that your time in Atlanta this time was the best one yet! Today is Saturday, so just think... You will be back in Atlanta in less than a week... THANK YOU
Saturday, December 20, 2008
Thursday, December 18, 2008
Day 5
Today is Thursday December 18th, 2008 and I have been in Georgia now for 5 days. Tonight I am over at my sister's house hanging out. This morning my youngest niece, Kailee, had surgery. (She had her tonsils out, she's only 5) Today started off great, I was in charge of the other two. Benjamin and Kamryn. We all got cleaned up and went over to Jerry's Country Kitchen for breakfast. See, you can go to Ihop and eat breakfast, but nothing compares to a good ole country breakfast. I had the most amazing sausage and gravy biscuit! Jerry's is famous for their pancakes, you order them individually. They even say, " (3) don't even think about it" Allow me to paint a picture for you, Jerry's pancake is the size a hubcap! (I am serious) Back in college my Friend and I would go and eat there, and yes we both would eat 3. You have to remember that Adam and I were the "Big football guys" The kids ordered pancakes, and I knew that I would be able to help out Kamryn finish hers.
After that, we ran to Publix (the kids wanted to buy their sister some flowers) and we ran over to Hobby Lobby. I figured they would enjoy going there, I mean, I do. They actually just were going along for the ride and knew that I wanted to go, so they acted cool! It worked out for all of us. Our next stop was over to Tanner Medical Center to go and see Kailee. Kailee did absolutely great and was looking upbeat too. I had one of those uncle/niece moments too. I was standing there and she said "uncle Aaron, get over here and give me a hug" see, I used to beg her to hug me, and would pretty much get shot down every time. Hey, if she said that because of the medicine she was on... I'll take it :)
Tonight, one of my sister's great friends and family brought over dinner for everyone! We had a honey baked ham and some mac and cheese and broccoli casserole. It was very yummy! Oh and now we are watching the Grinch (the one with Jim Carey)
The highlight of my day today was the phone call that I received around lunch time. I have yet to write about my girlfriend, but I figured it was better now than never. Sarah called me on her way to pick up lunch for some of the people she is working with this week. She is actually working up in Hickory NC this week, funny because, I drive home to Georgia, she hops on a plane and is only 4 hrs away from me. I have to admit that its been 5 days from the last time we have seen each other. (are you catching onto the 5 theme yet?) The 5th day marks the longest time Sarah and I have not seen one another. (it is absolutely driving me crazy) I do have some great news though... The day after Christmas, she is flying to Georgia to meet my family and also help me drive back to Texas. If you are the praying type, please pray for Sarah and myself. I have never meet anyone in this world like her! I am completely humbled that God would have sent me an angle when I was least expecting it. Sarah, if you happen to stumble on this, I am so very thankful for you in my life. I like you more this second than the last! I am excited to see what God has planned for us, and how He is completely in control of it. I want to thank you for giving me a chance, and walking up and saying "Hi" Please know that I'm counting down the time before you are here! I can't wait to see you!
After that, we ran to Publix (the kids wanted to buy their sister some flowers) and we ran over to Hobby Lobby. I figured they would enjoy going there, I mean, I do. They actually just were going along for the ride and knew that I wanted to go, so they acted cool! It worked out for all of us. Our next stop was over to Tanner Medical Center to go and see Kailee. Kailee did absolutely great and was looking upbeat too. I had one of those uncle/niece moments too. I was standing there and she said "uncle Aaron, get over here and give me a hug" see, I used to beg her to hug me, and would pretty much get shot down every time. Hey, if she said that because of the medicine she was on... I'll take it :)
Tonight, one of my sister's great friends and family brought over dinner for everyone! We had a honey baked ham and some mac and cheese and broccoli casserole. It was very yummy! Oh and now we are watching the Grinch (the one with Jim Carey)
The highlight of my day today was the phone call that I received around lunch time. I have yet to write about my girlfriend, but I figured it was better now than never. Sarah called me on her way to pick up lunch for some of the people she is working with this week. She is actually working up in Hickory NC this week, funny because, I drive home to Georgia, she hops on a plane and is only 4 hrs away from me. I have to admit that its been 5 days from the last time we have seen each other. (are you catching onto the 5 theme yet?) The 5th day marks the longest time Sarah and I have not seen one another. (it is absolutely driving me crazy) I do have some great news though... The day after Christmas, she is flying to Georgia to meet my family and also help me drive back to Texas. If you are the praying type, please pray for Sarah and myself. I have never meet anyone in this world like her! I am completely humbled that God would have sent me an angle when I was least expecting it. Sarah, if you happen to stumble on this, I am so very thankful for you in my life. I like you more this second than the last! I am excited to see what God has planned for us, and how He is completely in control of it. I want to thank you for giving me a chance, and walking up and saying "Hi" Please know that I'm counting down the time before you are here! I can't wait to see you!
Monday, December 8, 2008
I have lost 70 lbs...
I have realized that my blog pretty much stinks... I have not kept up with it like I wanted to when I began it. I will be done with finals on Wednesday and than a much needed break for 25 days until spring semester begins on Jan 15th. I wanted to share with you a few picture of the past year! The first pic was taken in March, the 2nd picture was sometime in May. The 3rd picture was this summer (July/August)! The 4th picture is the most recent, December 2, 2008
I am weighing around 260 and I have lost a total of 70 pounds. I am doing so great, I am amazed! I will be glad to tell everyone what my secret is, but its no secret to me. I will be visiting my own blog more often in the future! Again, for all my faithful readers (I don't think I have any) but if your out there, please stay tuned! God Bless...
Monday, November 10, 2008
COAL...its what's for dinner...oh wait...its what makes our dinner?!!!!
COAL....
Example chemical structure of coal
Coal is a fossil fuel formed in ecosystems where plant remains were preserved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation, thus sequestering atmospheric carbon. Coal is a readily combustible black or brownish-black rock. It is a sedimentary rock, but the harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. It is composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen along with small quantities of other elements, notably sulfur. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, either underground mining or open pit mining (surface mining).
Coal is the largest source of fuel for the generation of electricity world-wide, as well as the largest world-wide source of carbon dioxide emissions. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and these emissions contribute to climate change and global warming.[1] In terms of carbon dioxide emissions, coal is slightly ahead of petroleum and about double that of natural gas.[2]
Contents[hide]
1 Types of coal
2 Early use
3 Uses today
3.1 Coal as fuel
3.2 Coking and use of coke
3.2.1 Gasification
3.2.2 Liquefaction - Coal-To-Liquids (CTL)
3.3 Coal as a traded commodity
3.4 Cultural usage
4 Environmental effects
5 Economic aspects
6 Energy density
7 Relative carbon cost
8 Underground fires
9 Production trends
9.1 World coal reserves
9.2 Major coal producers
9.3 Major coal exporters
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
//
[edit] Types of coal
As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic matter over time, under suitable conditions it is transformed successively into
Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal. It has industrial importance as a fuel in some countries, for example, Ireland and Finland.
Lignite, also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power generation. Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Iron Age.
Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal and are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation. Additionally, it is an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry.
Bituminous coal, a dense mineral, black but sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke.
Anthracite, the highest rank; a harder, glossy, black coal used primarily for residential and commercial space heating. It may be divided further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal and petrified oil, as from the deposits in Pennsylvania.
Graphite, technically the highest rank, but difficult to ignite and is not so commonly used as fuel: it is mostly used in pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant.
The classification of coal is generally based on the content of volatiles. However, the exact classification varies between countries. According to the German classification, coal is classified as follows:[3]
Name
Volatiles %
C Carbon %
H Hydrogen %
O Oxygen %
S Sulfur %
Heat content kJ/kg
Braunkohle (Lignite)
45-65
60-75
6.0-5.8
34-17
0.5-3
<28470
Flammkohle (Flame coal)
40-45
75-82
6.0-5.8
>9.8
~1
<32870
Gasflammkohle (Gas flame coal)
35-40
82-85
5.8-5.6
9.8-7.3
~1
<33910
Gaskohle (Gas coal)
28-35
85-87.5
5.6-5.0
7.3-4.5
~1
<34960
Fettkohle (Fat coal)
19-28
87.5-89.5
5.0-4.5
4.5-3.2
~1
<35380
Esskohle (Forge coal)
14-19
89.5-90.5
4.5-4.0
3.2-2.8
~1
<35380
Magerkohle (Non baking coal)
10-14
90.5-91.5
4.0-3.75
2.8-3.5
~1
35380
Anthrazit (Anthracite)
7-12
>91.5
<3.75
<2.5
~1
<35300
The middle six grades in the table represent a progressive transition from the English-language sub-bituminous to bituminous coal, while the last class is an approximate equivalent to anthracite, but more inclusive (the U.S. anthracite has < 8% volatiles).
[edit] Early use
China Coal Information Institute reports the Chinese mined coalstone for fuel 10,000 years ago at the time of the New Stone Age, or Neolithic Era. "People in Shanxi, now the largest coal production base, have been burning coal as fuel since then."[4] Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age (2000-3000 years BC), where it has been detected as forming part of the composition of funeral pyres.[5] It was also commonly used in the early period of the Roman occupation: Evidence of trade in coal (dated to about AD 200) has been found at the inland port of Heronbridge, near Chester, and in the Fenlands of East Anglia, where coal from the Midlands was transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain.[6] Coal cinders have been found in the hearths of villas and military forts, particularly in Northumberland, dated to around AD 400. In the west of England contemporary writers described the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath) although in fact easily-accessible surface coal from what became the Somerset coalfield was in common use in quite lowly dwellings locally.[7] Evidence of coal's use for iron-working in the city during the Roman period has been found.[8]
There is no evidence that the product was of great importance in Britain before the High Middle Ages, after about AD 1000. Mineral coal came to be referred to as "seacoal," probably because it came to many places in eastern England, including London, by sea. This is accepted as the more likely explanation for the name than that it was found on beaches, having fallen from the exposed coal seams above or washed out of underwater coal seam outcrops. These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by the 13th century, when underground mining from shafts or adits was developed.[5] In London there is still a Seacoal Lane and a Newcastle Lane (from the coal-shipping city of Newcastle) where in the seventeenth century coal was unloaded at wharves along the River Fleet.[9] An alternative name was "pitcoal," because it came from mines. It was, however, the development of the Industrial Revolution that led to the large-scale use of coal, as the steam engine took over from the water wheel.
[edit] Uses today
Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio.
[edit] Coal as fuel
Further information: Clean coal technology, Coal electricity, and Global warming
Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat through combustion. World coal consumption is about 6.2 billion tons annually. China produced 2.38 billion tons in 2006 and India produced about 447.3 million tons in 2006. 68.7% of China's electricity comes from coal. The USA consumes about 1.053 billion tons of coal each year, using 90% of it for generation of electricity. The world in total produced 6.19 billion tons of coal in 2006.
When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulverized and then burned in a furnace with a boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity. The thermodynamic efficiency of this process has been improved over time. "Standard" steam turbines have topped out with some of the most advanced reaching about 35% thermodynamic efficiency for the entire process, which means 65% of the coal energy is waste heat released into the surrounding environment. Old coal power plants, especially "grandfathered" plants, are significantly less efficient and produce higher levels of waste heat. About 40% of the world's electricity comes from coal [10], and approximately 49% of the United States electricity comes from coal.[11].
Fuels for heating
Heating oilWood pelletKerosenePropaneNatural gasElectricityWoodCoal
The emergence of the supercritical turbine concept envisions running a boiler at extremely high temperatures and pressures with projected efficiencies of 46%, with further theorized increases in temperature and pressure perhaps resulting in even higher efficiencies.[12]
Other efficient ways to use coal are combined cycle power plants, combined heat and power cogeneration, and an MHD topping cycle.
Approximately 40% of the world electricity production uses coal. The total known deposits recoverable by current technologies, including highly polluting, low energy content types of coal (i.e., lignite, bituminous), might be sufficient for 300 years' use at current consumption levels, although maximal production could be reached within decades (see World Coal Reserves, below).
A more energy-efficient way of using coal for electricity production would be via solid-oxide fuel cells or molten-carbonate fuel cells (or any oxygen ion transport based fuel cells that do not discriminate between fuels, as long as they consume oxygen), which would be able to get 60%–85% combined efficiency (direct electricity + waste heat steam turbine).[citation needed] Currently these fuel cell technologies can only process gaseous fuels, and they are also sensitive to sulfur poisoning, issues which would first have to be worked out before large scale commercial success is possible with coal. As far as gaseous fuels go, one idea is pulverized coal in a gas carrier, such as nitrogen. Another option is coal gasification with water, which may lower fuel cell voltage by introducing oxygen to the fuel side of the electrolyte, but may also greatly simplify carbon sequestration. However, this technology has been criticised as being inefficient, slow, risky and costly, while doing nothing about total emissions from mining, processing and combustion.[13]
[edit] Coking and use of coke
Main article: Coke (fuel)
Coke burning
Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C (1,832 °F) so that the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Metallurgic coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8 million Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Some cokemaking processes produce valuable by-products that include coal tar, ammonia, light oils, and "coal gas".
Petroleum coke is the solid residue obtained in oil refining, which resembles coke but contains too many impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications.
[edit] Gasification
Coal gasification can be used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) gas. This syngas can then be converted into transportation fuels like gasoline and diesel through the Fischer-Tropsch process. Currently, this technology is being used by the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make gasoline from coal and natural gas. Alternatively, the hydrogen obtained from gasification can be used for various purposes such as powering a hydrogen economy, making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels.
During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam (water vapor) while also being heated and pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules oxidize the coal into carbon monoxide (CO) while also releasing hydrogen (H2) gas. This process has been conducted in both underground coal mines and in coal refineries.
(Coal) + O2 + H2O → H2 + CO
If the refiner wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is collected at this state and routed into a Fischer-Tropsch reaction. If hydrogen is the desired end-product, however, the syngas is fed into the water gas shift reaction where more hydrogen is liberated.
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased interest in "BTU Conversion" technologies such as gasification, methanation and liquefaction. The Synthetic Fuels Corporation was a U.S. government-funded corporation established in 1980 to create a market for alternatives to imported fossil fuels (such as coal gasification). The corporation was discontinued in 1985.
In the past, coal was converted to make coal gas, which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking. At present, the safer natural gas is used instead.
[edit] Liquefaction - Coal-To-Liquids (CTL)
Coals can also be converted into liquid fuels like gasoline or diesel by several different processes. In the direct liquefaction processes, the coal is either hydrogenated or carbonized. Alternatively, coal can be converted into a gas first, and then into a liquid, by using the Fischer-Tropsch process.
In the Bergius process [14], coal is liquefied by mixing it with hydrogen gas and heating the system (hydrogenation). This process was used by Germany during World War I and World War II and has been explored by SASOL in South Africa. Several other direct liquefaction processes have been developed, among these being the SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes developed by Gulf Oil and implemented as pilot plants in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s.[15]. The NUS Corporation developed another hydrogenation process which was patented by Wilburn C. Schroeder in 1976. The process involved dried, pulverized coal mixed with roughly 1wt% molybdenum catalysts. Hydrogenation occurred by use of high temperature and pressure synthesis gas produced in a separate gasifier. The process ultimately yielded a synthetic crude product, Naphtha, a limited amount of C3/C4 gas, light-medium weight liquids (C5-C10) suitable for use as fuels, small amounts of NH3 and significant amounts of CO2.[16]
The process of low temperature carbonization (LTC) can also convert coal into a liquid fuel. Coal is coked at temperatures between 450 and 700°C compared to 800 to 1000°C for metallurgical coke. These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels. The Karrick process was developed by Lewis C. Karrick, an oil shale technologist at the U.S. Bureau of Mines in the 1920s.
In the Fischer-Tropsch process, an indirect route, coal is first gasified to make syngas (a balanced purified mixture of CO and H2 gas). Next, Fischer-Tropsch catalysts are used to convert the syngas into light hydrocarbons (like ethane) which are further processed into gasoline and diesel. This method was used by Nazi Germany for many years and is currently being used by Sasol in South Africa. In addition to creating gasoline, syngas can also be converted into methanol, which can be used as a fuel, or into a fuel additive.
All of these liquid fuel production methods release carbon dioxide (CO2) in the conversion process, far more than is released in the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel production from petroleum. If these methods were adopted to replace declining petroleum supplies, carbon dioxide emissions would be greatly increased on a global scale. For future liquefaction projects, Carbon dioxide sequestration is proposed to avoid releasing it into the atmosphere, though no pilot projects have confirmed the feasibility of this approach on a wide scale. As CO2 is one of the process streams, sequestration is easier than from flue gases produced in combustion of coal with air, where CO2 is diluted by nitrogen and other gases. Sequestration will, however, add to the cost.
The reaction of coal and water using high temperature heat from a nuclear reactor offers promise of liquid transport fuels that could prove carbon-neutral compared to petroleum use. The development of a reliable nuclear reactor that could provide 900 to 1000 deg C process heat, such as the pebble bed reactor, would be necessary.
[edit] Coal as a traded commodity
The price of coal has gone up from around $30 per short ton in 2000 to around $150.00 per short ton as of September 26th, 2008. As of October 31, 2008, the price per short ton has declined to $111.50.[17]
In North America, a Central Appalachian coal futures contract is currently traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (trading symbol QL). The trading unit is 1,550 short tons per contract, and is quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per ton. Since coal is the principal fuel for generating electricity in the United States, the futures contract provides coal producers and the electric power industry an important tool for hedging and risk management.[18]
In addition to the NYMEX contract, the IntercontinentalExchange (ICE) has European (Rotterdam) and South African (Richards Bay) coal futures available for trading. The trading unit for these contracts is 5,000 metric tons, and are also quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per ton.[19]
[edit] Cultural usage
Coal is the official state mineral of Kentucky and the official state rock of Utah. Both U.S. states have a historic link to coal mining.
Some cultures uphold that children who misbehave will receive only a lump of coal from Santa Claus for Christmas in their stockings instead of presents.
It is also customary and lucky in Scotland to give coal as a gift on New Year's Day. It happens as part of First-Footing and represents warmth for the year to come.
[edit] Environmental effects
Main article: Environmental effects of coal
There are a number of adverse environmental effects of coal mining and burning, specially in power stations.
These effects include:
release of carbon dioxide and methane, both of which are greenhouse gases, which are causing climate change and global warming according to the IPCC. Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO2 in the air. [20]
generation of hundred of millions of tons of waste products, including fly ash, bottom ash, flue gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals
acid rain
interference with groundwater and water table levels
impact of water use on flows of rivers and consequential impact on other land-uses
dust nuisance
subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure
rendering land unfit for other uses
coal-fired power plants without effective fly ash capture are one of the largest sources of human-caused background radiation exposure
coal-fired power plants shorten nearly 24,000 lives a year, including 2,800 from lung cancer. [21]
coal-fired power plant releases emmissions including mercury, selenium, and arsenic which are harmful to human health and the environment.
[22]
[edit] Economic aspects
Coal liquefaction is one of the backstop technologies that could potentially limit escalation of oil prices and mitigate the effects of transportation energy shortage that some authors have suggested could occur under peak oil. This is contingent on liquefaction production capacity becoming large enough to satiate the very large and growing demand for petroleum. Estimates of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal suggest that domestic U.S. production of fuel from coal becomes cost-competitive with oil priced at around 35 USD per barrel,[23] (break-even cost). With oil prices climbing up to as high as 145 USD per barrel (posted on July 11, 2008), coal has become a viable financial alternative to oil for the time being, although current production is small.[24]
Among commercially mature technologies, advantage for indirect coal liquefaction over direct coal liquefaction are reported by Williams and Larson (2003). Estimates are reported for sites in China where break-even cost for coal liquefaction may be in the range between 25 to 35 USD/barrel of oil.[citation needed]'
Intensive research and project developments have been implemented from 2001. The World CTL Award is granted to personalities having brought eminent contribution to the understanding and development of Coal liquefaction. The 2009 presentation ceremony will take place in Washington DC (USA) at the World CTL 2009 Conference (25-27 March, 2009).
[edit] Energy density
Main article: Energy value of coal
The energy density of coal, i.e. its heating value, is roughly 24 megajoules per kilogram.[25]
The energy density of coal can also be expressed in kilowatt-hours for some unit of mass, the units that electricity is most commonly sold in, to estimate how much coal is required to power electrical appliances. One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 MJ, so the energy density of coal is 6.67 kW·h/kg. The typical thermodynamic efficiency of coal power plants is about 30%, so of the 6.67 kW·h of energy per kilogram of coal, 30% of that—2.0 kW·h—can successfully be turned into electricity; the rest is waste heat. So coal power plants obtain approximately 2.0 kW·h per kilogram of burned coal.
As an example, running one 100 watt computer for one year requires 876 kW·h (100 W × 24 h/day × 365 {days in a year} = 876000 W·h = 876 kW·h). Converting this power usage into physical coal consumption:
It takes 438 kg (966 lb) of coal to power a computer for one full year.[26] One should also take into account transmission and distribution losses caused by resistance and heating in the power lines, which is in the order of 5–10%, depending on distance from the power station and other factors.
[edit] Relative carbon cost
Because coal is at least 50% carbon (by mass), then 1 kg of coal contains at least 0.5 kg of carbon, which is
where 1 mol is equal to NA (Avogadro Number) particles.
This combines with oxygen in the atmosphere during combustion, producing carbon dioxide, with an atomic weight of (12 + 16 × 2 = mass(CO2) = 44 kg/kmol), so 1⁄24 kmol of CO2 is produced from the 1⁄24 kmol present in every kilogram of coal, which once trapped in CO2 weighs approximately
.
This can be used to put a carbon-cost of energy on the use of coal power. Since the useful energy output of coal is about 30% of the 6.67 kW·h/kg(coal), we can say about 2 kW·h/kg(coal) of energy is produced. Since 1 kg coal roughly translates as 1.83 kg of CO2, we can say that using electricity from coal produces CO2 at a rate of about 0.915 kg/(kW·h), or about 0.254 kg/MJ.
This estimate compares favourably with the U.S. Energy Information Agency's 1999 report on CO2 emissions for energy generation[27], which quotes a specific emission rate of 950 g CO2/(kW·h). By comparison, generation from oil in the U.S. was 890 g CO2/(kW·h), while natural gas was 600 g CO2/(kW·h). Estimates for specific emission from nuclear power, hydro, and wind energy vary, but are about 100 times lower. See environmental effects of nuclear power for estimates.
[edit] Underground fires
There are hundreds of coal fires burning around the world.[28] Those burning underground can be difficult to locate and many cannot be extinguished. Fires can cause the ground above to subside, their combustion gases are dangerous to life, and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface wildfires. Coal seams can be set on fire by spontaneous combustion or contact with a mine fire or surface fire. A grass fire in a coal area can set dozens of coal seams on fire.[29][30] Coal fires in China burn 109 million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric tons of CO2. This contradicts the ratio of 1:1.83 given earlier, but it amounts to 2-3% of the annual worldwide production of CO2 from fossil fuels, or as much as emitted from all of the cars and light trucks in the United States.[31][32] In Centralia, Pennsylvania (a borough located in the Coal Region of the United States) an exposed vein of coal ignited in 1962 due to a trash fire in the borough landfill, located in an abandoned anthracite strip mine pit. Attempts to extinguish the fire were unsuccessful, and it continues to burn underground to this day. The Australian Burning Mountain was originally believed to be a volcano, but the smoke and ash comes from a coal fire which may have been burning for over 5,500 years.[33]
At Kuh i Malik in Yagnob Valley, Tajikistan, coal deposits have been burning for thousands of years, creating vast underground labyrinths full of unique minerals, some of them very beautiful. Local people once used this method to mine ammoniac. This place has been well-known since the time of Herodotus, but European geographers misinterpreted the Ancient Greek descriptions as the evidence of active volcanism in Turkestan (up to the 19th century, when Russian army invaded the area).
The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and buttes in the Powder River Basin (Wyoming), and in western North Dakota is called porcelanite, which also may resemble the coal burning waste "clinker" or volcanic "scoria".[34] Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning of coal. In the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to 54 billion tons of coal burned within the past three million years.[35] Wild coal fires in the area were reported by the Lewis and Clark Expedition as well as explorers and settlers in the area.[36]
[edit] Production trends
Coal output in 2005
A coal mine in Jharkhand, India. India has about 10% of world's coal reserves.
In 2006, China was the top producer of coal with 38% share followed by the USA and India, reports the British Geological Survey.
[edit] World coal reserves
At the end of 2006 the recoverable coal reserves amounted around 800 or 900 gigatons. The United States Energy Information Administration gives world reserves as 998 billion short tons[37] (equal to 905 gigatons), approximately half of it being hard coal. At the current production rate, this would last 164 years.[38] At the current global total energy consumption of 15 terawatt,[39] there is enough coal to provide the entire planet with all of its energy for 57 years.[original research?]
The 998 billion tons of recoverable coal reserves estimated by the Energy Information Administration are equal to about 4,417 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equivalent).[citation needed] The amount of coal burned during 2001 was calculated as 2.337 GTOE (gigatonnes of oil equivalent), which is about 46 million barrels of oil equivalent per day.[citation needed] Were consumption to continue at that rate those reserves would last about 263 years. As a comparison, natural gas provided 51 million barrels (oil equivalent), and oil 76 million barrels, per day during 2001.
British Petroleum, in its annual report 2007, estimated at 2006 end, there were 909,064 million tons of proven coal reserves worldwide, or 147 years reserves to production ratio. This figure only includes reserves classified as "proven"; exploration drilling programs by mining companies, particularly in under-explored areas, are continually providing new reserves. In many cases, companies are aware of coal deposits that have not been sufficiently drilled to qualify as "proven". However, some nations haven't updated their information and assume reserves remain at the same levels even with withdrawals.
US coal regions
Of the three fossil fuels coal has the most widely distributed reserves; coal is mined in over 100 countries, and on all continents except Antarctica. The largest reserves are found in the USA, Russia, Australia, China, India and South Africa.
Note the table below.
Example chemical structure of coal
Coal is a fossil fuel formed in ecosystems where plant remains were preserved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation, thus sequestering atmospheric carbon. Coal is a readily combustible black or brownish-black rock. It is a sedimentary rock, but the harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. It is composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen along with small quantities of other elements, notably sulfur. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, either underground mining or open pit mining (surface mining).
Coal is the largest source of fuel for the generation of electricity world-wide, as well as the largest world-wide source of carbon dioxide emissions. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and these emissions contribute to climate change and global warming.[1] In terms of carbon dioxide emissions, coal is slightly ahead of petroleum and about double that of natural gas.[2]
Contents[hide]
1 Types of coal
2 Early use
3 Uses today
3.1 Coal as fuel
3.2 Coking and use of coke
3.2.1 Gasification
3.2.2 Liquefaction - Coal-To-Liquids (CTL)
3.3 Coal as a traded commodity
3.4 Cultural usage
4 Environmental effects
5 Economic aspects
6 Energy density
7 Relative carbon cost
8 Underground fires
9 Production trends
9.1 World coal reserves
9.2 Major coal producers
9.3 Major coal exporters
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
//
[edit] Types of coal
As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic matter over time, under suitable conditions it is transformed successively into
Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal. It has industrial importance as a fuel in some countries, for example, Ireland and Finland.
Lignite, also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power generation. Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Iron Age.
Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal and are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation. Additionally, it is an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry.
Bituminous coal, a dense mineral, black but sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke.
Anthracite, the highest rank; a harder, glossy, black coal used primarily for residential and commercial space heating. It may be divided further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal and petrified oil, as from the deposits in Pennsylvania.
Graphite, technically the highest rank, but difficult to ignite and is not so commonly used as fuel: it is mostly used in pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant.
The classification of coal is generally based on the content of volatiles. However, the exact classification varies between countries. According to the German classification, coal is classified as follows:[3]
Name
Volatiles %
C Carbon %
H Hydrogen %
O Oxygen %
S Sulfur %
Heat content kJ/kg
Braunkohle (Lignite)
45-65
60-75
6.0-5.8
34-17
0.5-3
<28470
Flammkohle (Flame coal)
40-45
75-82
6.0-5.8
>9.8
~1
<32870
Gasflammkohle (Gas flame coal)
35-40
82-85
5.8-5.6
9.8-7.3
~1
<33910
Gaskohle (Gas coal)
28-35
85-87.5
5.6-5.0
7.3-4.5
~1
<34960
Fettkohle (Fat coal)
19-28
87.5-89.5
5.0-4.5
4.5-3.2
~1
<35380
Esskohle (Forge coal)
14-19
89.5-90.5
4.5-4.0
3.2-2.8
~1
<35380
Magerkohle (Non baking coal)
10-14
90.5-91.5
4.0-3.75
2.8-3.5
~1
35380
Anthrazit (Anthracite)
7-12
>91.5
<3.75
<2.5
~1
<35300
The middle six grades in the table represent a progressive transition from the English-language sub-bituminous to bituminous coal, while the last class is an approximate equivalent to anthracite, but more inclusive (the U.S. anthracite has < 8% volatiles).
[edit] Early use
China Coal Information Institute reports the Chinese mined coalstone for fuel 10,000 years ago at the time of the New Stone Age, or Neolithic Era. "People in Shanxi, now the largest coal production base, have been burning coal as fuel since then."[4] Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age (2000-3000 years BC), where it has been detected as forming part of the composition of funeral pyres.[5] It was also commonly used in the early period of the Roman occupation: Evidence of trade in coal (dated to about AD 200) has been found at the inland port of Heronbridge, near Chester, and in the Fenlands of East Anglia, where coal from the Midlands was transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain.[6] Coal cinders have been found in the hearths of villas and military forts, particularly in Northumberland, dated to around AD 400. In the west of England contemporary writers described the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath) although in fact easily-accessible surface coal from what became the Somerset coalfield was in common use in quite lowly dwellings locally.[7] Evidence of coal's use for iron-working in the city during the Roman period has been found.[8]
There is no evidence that the product was of great importance in Britain before the High Middle Ages, after about AD 1000. Mineral coal came to be referred to as "seacoal," probably because it came to many places in eastern England, including London, by sea. This is accepted as the more likely explanation for the name than that it was found on beaches, having fallen from the exposed coal seams above or washed out of underwater coal seam outcrops. These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by the 13th century, when underground mining from shafts or adits was developed.[5] In London there is still a Seacoal Lane and a Newcastle Lane (from the coal-shipping city of Newcastle) where in the seventeenth century coal was unloaded at wharves along the River Fleet.[9] An alternative name was "pitcoal," because it came from mines. It was, however, the development of the Industrial Revolution that led to the large-scale use of coal, as the steam engine took over from the water wheel.
[edit] Uses today
Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio.
[edit] Coal as fuel
Further information: Clean coal technology, Coal electricity, and Global warming
Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat through combustion. World coal consumption is about 6.2 billion tons annually. China produced 2.38 billion tons in 2006 and India produced about 447.3 million tons in 2006. 68.7% of China's electricity comes from coal. The USA consumes about 1.053 billion tons of coal each year, using 90% of it for generation of electricity. The world in total produced 6.19 billion tons of coal in 2006.
When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulverized and then burned in a furnace with a boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity. The thermodynamic efficiency of this process has been improved over time. "Standard" steam turbines have topped out with some of the most advanced reaching about 35% thermodynamic efficiency for the entire process, which means 65% of the coal energy is waste heat released into the surrounding environment. Old coal power plants, especially "grandfathered" plants, are significantly less efficient and produce higher levels of waste heat. About 40% of the world's electricity comes from coal [10], and approximately 49% of the United States electricity comes from coal.[11].
Fuels for heating
Heating oilWood pelletKerosenePropaneNatural gasElectricityWoodCoal
The emergence of the supercritical turbine concept envisions running a boiler at extremely high temperatures and pressures with projected efficiencies of 46%, with further theorized increases in temperature and pressure perhaps resulting in even higher efficiencies.[12]
Other efficient ways to use coal are combined cycle power plants, combined heat and power cogeneration, and an MHD topping cycle.
Approximately 40% of the world electricity production uses coal. The total known deposits recoverable by current technologies, including highly polluting, low energy content types of coal (i.e., lignite, bituminous), might be sufficient for 300 years' use at current consumption levels, although maximal production could be reached within decades (see World Coal Reserves, below).
A more energy-efficient way of using coal for electricity production would be via solid-oxide fuel cells or molten-carbonate fuel cells (or any oxygen ion transport based fuel cells that do not discriminate between fuels, as long as they consume oxygen), which would be able to get 60%–85% combined efficiency (direct electricity + waste heat steam turbine).[citation needed] Currently these fuel cell technologies can only process gaseous fuels, and they are also sensitive to sulfur poisoning, issues which would first have to be worked out before large scale commercial success is possible with coal. As far as gaseous fuels go, one idea is pulverized coal in a gas carrier, such as nitrogen. Another option is coal gasification with water, which may lower fuel cell voltage by introducing oxygen to the fuel side of the electrolyte, but may also greatly simplify carbon sequestration. However, this technology has been criticised as being inefficient, slow, risky and costly, while doing nothing about total emissions from mining, processing and combustion.[13]
[edit] Coking and use of coke
Main article: Coke (fuel)
Coke burning
Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C (1,832 °F) so that the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Metallurgic coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8 million Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Some cokemaking processes produce valuable by-products that include coal tar, ammonia, light oils, and "coal gas".
Petroleum coke is the solid residue obtained in oil refining, which resembles coke but contains too many impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications.
[edit] Gasification
Coal gasification can be used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) gas. This syngas can then be converted into transportation fuels like gasoline and diesel through the Fischer-Tropsch process. Currently, this technology is being used by the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make gasoline from coal and natural gas. Alternatively, the hydrogen obtained from gasification can be used for various purposes such as powering a hydrogen economy, making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels.
During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam (water vapor) while also being heated and pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules oxidize the coal into carbon monoxide (CO) while also releasing hydrogen (H2) gas. This process has been conducted in both underground coal mines and in coal refineries.
(Coal) + O2 + H2O → H2 + CO
If the refiner wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is collected at this state and routed into a Fischer-Tropsch reaction. If hydrogen is the desired end-product, however, the syngas is fed into the water gas shift reaction where more hydrogen is liberated.
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased interest in "BTU Conversion" technologies such as gasification, methanation and liquefaction. The Synthetic Fuels Corporation was a U.S. government-funded corporation established in 1980 to create a market for alternatives to imported fossil fuels (such as coal gasification). The corporation was discontinued in 1985.
In the past, coal was converted to make coal gas, which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking. At present, the safer natural gas is used instead.
[edit] Liquefaction - Coal-To-Liquids (CTL)
Coals can also be converted into liquid fuels like gasoline or diesel by several different processes. In the direct liquefaction processes, the coal is either hydrogenated or carbonized. Alternatively, coal can be converted into a gas first, and then into a liquid, by using the Fischer-Tropsch process.
In the Bergius process [14], coal is liquefied by mixing it with hydrogen gas and heating the system (hydrogenation). This process was used by Germany during World War I and World War II and has been explored by SASOL in South Africa. Several other direct liquefaction processes have been developed, among these being the SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes developed by Gulf Oil and implemented as pilot plants in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s.[15]. The NUS Corporation developed another hydrogenation process which was patented by Wilburn C. Schroeder in 1976. The process involved dried, pulverized coal mixed with roughly 1wt% molybdenum catalysts. Hydrogenation occurred by use of high temperature and pressure synthesis gas produced in a separate gasifier. The process ultimately yielded a synthetic crude product, Naphtha, a limited amount of C3/C4 gas, light-medium weight liquids (C5-C10) suitable for use as fuels, small amounts of NH3 and significant amounts of CO2.[16]
The process of low temperature carbonization (LTC) can also convert coal into a liquid fuel. Coal is coked at temperatures between 450 and 700°C compared to 800 to 1000°C for metallurgical coke. These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels. The Karrick process was developed by Lewis C. Karrick, an oil shale technologist at the U.S. Bureau of Mines in the 1920s.
In the Fischer-Tropsch process, an indirect route, coal is first gasified to make syngas (a balanced purified mixture of CO and H2 gas). Next, Fischer-Tropsch catalysts are used to convert the syngas into light hydrocarbons (like ethane) which are further processed into gasoline and diesel. This method was used by Nazi Germany for many years and is currently being used by Sasol in South Africa. In addition to creating gasoline, syngas can also be converted into methanol, which can be used as a fuel, or into a fuel additive.
All of these liquid fuel production methods release carbon dioxide (CO2) in the conversion process, far more than is released in the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel production from petroleum. If these methods were adopted to replace declining petroleum supplies, carbon dioxide emissions would be greatly increased on a global scale. For future liquefaction projects, Carbon dioxide sequestration is proposed to avoid releasing it into the atmosphere, though no pilot projects have confirmed the feasibility of this approach on a wide scale. As CO2 is one of the process streams, sequestration is easier than from flue gases produced in combustion of coal with air, where CO2 is diluted by nitrogen and other gases. Sequestration will, however, add to the cost.
The reaction of coal and water using high temperature heat from a nuclear reactor offers promise of liquid transport fuels that could prove carbon-neutral compared to petroleum use. The development of a reliable nuclear reactor that could provide 900 to 1000 deg C process heat, such as the pebble bed reactor, would be necessary.
[edit] Coal as a traded commodity
The price of coal has gone up from around $30 per short ton in 2000 to around $150.00 per short ton as of September 26th, 2008. As of October 31, 2008, the price per short ton has declined to $111.50.[17]
In North America, a Central Appalachian coal futures contract is currently traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (trading symbol QL). The trading unit is 1,550 short tons per contract, and is quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per ton. Since coal is the principal fuel for generating electricity in the United States, the futures contract provides coal producers and the electric power industry an important tool for hedging and risk management.[18]
In addition to the NYMEX contract, the IntercontinentalExchange (ICE) has European (Rotterdam) and South African (Richards Bay) coal futures available for trading. The trading unit for these contracts is 5,000 metric tons, and are also quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per ton.[19]
[edit] Cultural usage
Coal is the official state mineral of Kentucky and the official state rock of Utah. Both U.S. states have a historic link to coal mining.
Some cultures uphold that children who misbehave will receive only a lump of coal from Santa Claus for Christmas in their stockings instead of presents.
It is also customary and lucky in Scotland to give coal as a gift on New Year's Day. It happens as part of First-Footing and represents warmth for the year to come.
[edit] Environmental effects
Main article: Environmental effects of coal
There are a number of adverse environmental effects of coal mining and burning, specially in power stations.
These effects include:
release of carbon dioxide and methane, both of which are greenhouse gases, which are causing climate change and global warming according to the IPCC. Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO2 in the air. [20]
generation of hundred of millions of tons of waste products, including fly ash, bottom ash, flue gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals
acid rain
interference with groundwater and water table levels
impact of water use on flows of rivers and consequential impact on other land-uses
dust nuisance
subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure
rendering land unfit for other uses
coal-fired power plants without effective fly ash capture are one of the largest sources of human-caused background radiation exposure
coal-fired power plants shorten nearly 24,000 lives a year, including 2,800 from lung cancer. [21]
coal-fired power plant releases emmissions including mercury, selenium, and arsenic which are harmful to human health and the environment.
[22]
[edit] Economic aspects
Coal liquefaction is one of the backstop technologies that could potentially limit escalation of oil prices and mitigate the effects of transportation energy shortage that some authors have suggested could occur under peak oil. This is contingent on liquefaction production capacity becoming large enough to satiate the very large and growing demand for petroleum. Estimates of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal suggest that domestic U.S. production of fuel from coal becomes cost-competitive with oil priced at around 35 USD per barrel,[23] (break-even cost). With oil prices climbing up to as high as 145 USD per barrel (posted on July 11, 2008), coal has become a viable financial alternative to oil for the time being, although current production is small.[24]
Among commercially mature technologies, advantage for indirect coal liquefaction over direct coal liquefaction are reported by Williams and Larson (2003). Estimates are reported for sites in China where break-even cost for coal liquefaction may be in the range between 25 to 35 USD/barrel of oil.[citation needed]'
Intensive research and project developments have been implemented from 2001. The World CTL Award is granted to personalities having brought eminent contribution to the understanding and development of Coal liquefaction. The 2009 presentation ceremony will take place in Washington DC (USA) at the World CTL 2009 Conference (25-27 March, 2009).
[edit] Energy density
Main article: Energy value of coal
The energy density of coal, i.e. its heating value, is roughly 24 megajoules per kilogram.[25]
The energy density of coal can also be expressed in kilowatt-hours for some unit of mass, the units that electricity is most commonly sold in, to estimate how much coal is required to power electrical appliances. One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 MJ, so the energy density of coal is 6.67 kW·h/kg. The typical thermodynamic efficiency of coal power plants is about 30%, so of the 6.67 kW·h of energy per kilogram of coal, 30% of that—2.0 kW·h—can successfully be turned into electricity; the rest is waste heat. So coal power plants obtain approximately 2.0 kW·h per kilogram of burned coal.
As an example, running one 100 watt computer for one year requires 876 kW·h (100 W × 24 h/day × 365 {days in a year} = 876000 W·h = 876 kW·h). Converting this power usage into physical coal consumption:
It takes 438 kg (966 lb) of coal to power a computer for one full year.[26] One should also take into account transmission and distribution losses caused by resistance and heating in the power lines, which is in the order of 5–10%, depending on distance from the power station and other factors.
[edit] Relative carbon cost
Because coal is at least 50% carbon (by mass), then 1 kg of coal contains at least 0.5 kg of carbon, which is
where 1 mol is equal to NA (Avogadro Number) particles.
This combines with oxygen in the atmosphere during combustion, producing carbon dioxide, with an atomic weight of (12 + 16 × 2 = mass(CO2) = 44 kg/kmol), so 1⁄24 kmol of CO2 is produced from the 1⁄24 kmol present in every kilogram of coal, which once trapped in CO2 weighs approximately
.
This can be used to put a carbon-cost of energy on the use of coal power. Since the useful energy output of coal is about 30% of the 6.67 kW·h/kg(coal), we can say about 2 kW·h/kg(coal) of energy is produced. Since 1 kg coal roughly translates as 1.83 kg of CO2, we can say that using electricity from coal produces CO2 at a rate of about 0.915 kg/(kW·h), or about 0.254 kg/MJ.
This estimate compares favourably with the U.S. Energy Information Agency's 1999 report on CO2 emissions for energy generation[27], which quotes a specific emission rate of 950 g CO2/(kW·h). By comparison, generation from oil in the U.S. was 890 g CO2/(kW·h), while natural gas was 600 g CO2/(kW·h). Estimates for specific emission from nuclear power, hydro, and wind energy vary, but are about 100 times lower. See environmental effects of nuclear power for estimates.
[edit] Underground fires
There are hundreds of coal fires burning around the world.[28] Those burning underground can be difficult to locate and many cannot be extinguished. Fires can cause the ground above to subside, their combustion gases are dangerous to life, and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface wildfires. Coal seams can be set on fire by spontaneous combustion or contact with a mine fire or surface fire. A grass fire in a coal area can set dozens of coal seams on fire.[29][30] Coal fires in China burn 109 million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric tons of CO2. This contradicts the ratio of 1:1.83 given earlier, but it amounts to 2-3% of the annual worldwide production of CO2 from fossil fuels, or as much as emitted from all of the cars and light trucks in the United States.[31][32] In Centralia, Pennsylvania (a borough located in the Coal Region of the United States) an exposed vein of coal ignited in 1962 due to a trash fire in the borough landfill, located in an abandoned anthracite strip mine pit. Attempts to extinguish the fire were unsuccessful, and it continues to burn underground to this day. The Australian Burning Mountain was originally believed to be a volcano, but the smoke and ash comes from a coal fire which may have been burning for over 5,500 years.[33]
At Kuh i Malik in Yagnob Valley, Tajikistan, coal deposits have been burning for thousands of years, creating vast underground labyrinths full of unique minerals, some of them very beautiful. Local people once used this method to mine ammoniac. This place has been well-known since the time of Herodotus, but European geographers misinterpreted the Ancient Greek descriptions as the evidence of active volcanism in Turkestan (up to the 19th century, when Russian army invaded the area).
The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and buttes in the Powder River Basin (Wyoming), and in western North Dakota is called porcelanite, which also may resemble the coal burning waste "clinker" or volcanic "scoria".[34] Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning of coal. In the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to 54 billion tons of coal burned within the past three million years.[35] Wild coal fires in the area were reported by the Lewis and Clark Expedition as well as explorers and settlers in the area.[36]
[edit] Production trends
Coal output in 2005
A coal mine in Jharkhand, India. India has about 10% of world's coal reserves.
In 2006, China was the top producer of coal with 38% share followed by the USA and India, reports the British Geological Survey.
[edit] World coal reserves
At the end of 2006 the recoverable coal reserves amounted around 800 or 900 gigatons. The United States Energy Information Administration gives world reserves as 998 billion short tons[37] (equal to 905 gigatons), approximately half of it being hard coal. At the current production rate, this would last 164 years.[38] At the current global total energy consumption of 15 terawatt,[39] there is enough coal to provide the entire planet with all of its energy for 57 years.[original research?]
The 998 billion tons of recoverable coal reserves estimated by the Energy Information Administration are equal to about 4,417 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equivalent).[citation needed] The amount of coal burned during 2001 was calculated as 2.337 GTOE (gigatonnes of oil equivalent), which is about 46 million barrels of oil equivalent per day.[citation needed] Were consumption to continue at that rate those reserves would last about 263 years. As a comparison, natural gas provided 51 million barrels (oil equivalent), and oil 76 million barrels, per day during 2001.
British Petroleum, in its annual report 2007, estimated at 2006 end, there were 909,064 million tons of proven coal reserves worldwide, or 147 years reserves to production ratio. This figure only includes reserves classified as "proven"; exploration drilling programs by mining companies, particularly in under-explored areas, are continually providing new reserves. In many cases, companies are aware of coal deposits that have not been sufficiently drilled to qualify as "proven". However, some nations haven't updated their information and assume reserves remain at the same levels even with withdrawals.
US coal regions
Of the three fossil fuels coal has the most widely distributed reserves; coal is mined in over 100 countries, and on all continents except Antarctica. The largest reserves are found in the USA, Russia, Australia, China, India and South Africa.
Note the table below.
Friday, November 7, 2008
Monday, September 29, 2008
Update
Hey I just wanted to share with you all my quite time this morning. Please don’t look for clarity, cause I just tried to write down my heart. Enjoy!
I am beginning to love my time with the youth at FBC Euless more and more everyday. Yesterday, Kent our youth pastor finished up the series on Joseph. I have to admit, I was a little disappointed knowing that I would not be able to teach my students the final lesson. The final lesson was on forgiveness, and its amazing how I may have been the only one in that huge room that needed to hear that. At this point in my life, I am in completely aware that I have some people to ask forgiveness of. I believe the struggles in which I am enduring are a result of that wall I have built up. I guess I figured that it would only hurt them in the long run. I am wrong for even thinking that way, because it is hurting me the most. That hurt has affected people in my life right now, even the most closest. I was always hearing of the high’s and Low’s of seminary. I was always just so confident “I’m the big bad football player, who is tough” well The High’s have been high, and the Low’s are low. I currently am experiencing a low. I am in a constant struggle with wanting to press on or pull back. See in the past, if hard times came, I would tuck my tail and run as fast as possible. These past few years, I have been strong, confident, moving forward. My desire is to continue that path. My prayer is that God would re-ignite the flame that is inside of me. I understand that my walk with my creator is not always going to be easy. I think about Sage and when he discipled me. How he always shared with me his “life verse” It is found in James.
Trials and Temptations 2Consider it pure joy, my brothers, whenever you face trials of many kinds, 3because you know that the testing of your faith develops perseverance. 4Perseverance must finish its work so that you may be mature and complete, not lacking anything. 5If any of you lacks wisdom, he should ask God, who gives generously to all without finding fault, and it will be given to him. 6But when he asks, he must believe and not doubt, because he who doubts is like a wave of the sea, blown and tossed by the wind. 7That man should not think he will receive anything from the Lord; 8he is a double-minded man, unstable in all he does. 9The brother in humble circumstances ought to take pride in his high position. 10But the one who is rich should take pride in his low position, because he will pass away like a wild flower. 11For the sun rises with scorching heat and withers the plant; its blossom falls and its beauty is destroyed. In the same way, the rich man will fade away even while he goes about his business. 12Blessed is the man who perseveres under trial, because when he has stood the test, he will receive the crown of life that God has promised to those who love him. 13When tempted, no one should say, "God is tempting me." For God cannot be tempted by evil, nor does he tempt anyone; 14but each one is tempted when, by his own evil desire, he is dragged away and enticed. 15Then, after desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin; and sin, when it is full-grown, gives birth to death. 16Don't be deceived, my dear brothers. 17Every good and perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of the heavenly lights, who does not change like shifting shadows. 18He chose to give us birth through the word of truth, that we might be a kind of firstfruits of all he created.
Listening and Doing 19My dear brothers, take note of this: Everyone should be quick to listen, slow to speak and slow to become angry, 20for man's anger does not bring about the righteous life that God desires. 21Therefore, get rid of all moral filth and the evil that is so prevalent and humbly accept the word planted in you, which can save you. 22Do not merely listen to the word, and so deceive yourselves. Do what it says. 23Anyone who listens to the word but does not do what it says is like a man who looks at his face in a mirror 24and, after looking at himself, goes away and immediately forgets what he looks like. 25But the man who looks intently into the perfect law that gives freedom, and continues to do this, not forgetting what he has heard, but doing it—he will be blessed in what he does. 26If anyone considers himself religious and yet does not keep a tight rein on his tongue, he deceives himself and his religion is worthless. 27Religion that God our Father accepts as pure and faultless is this: to look after orphans and widows in their distress and to keep oneself from being polluted by the world.
As I read this again, I am still at awe at what God has for my life. The scripture is Truth, and it equips me for everything in my life. If I need wisdom, than ask! If I need to be kicked in the teeth, than kick me. Allow, me to read this and be confident in what it says, that the testing of my faith develops perseverance, nothing more. (that’s good Aaron) Verse 6 “But when he asks, he must believe and not doubt, because he who doubts is like a wave of the sea, blown and tossed by the wind” Total surrender, total assurance that God is in control, and that I must totally believe that. I do, trust me, its just during these trials, the devil tries to get you to not. If your reading this, please pray for me. This past week as been the hardest week since I have been out here. (more like the past 3) If you would pray that God would just completely humble me and allow me to remain like that. My one desire should be Jesus Christ. I can admit, that recently I have not been living like that. Today, not fully understanding, but making a commitment to stop, breath, and know that God does have a plan for my life. He has never left nor forsaken me, and that he is building me up even more right now, it just may take some time to see that. I have places in my life that I must seek forgiveness from people, and also forgive people. God, please allow me to do that and not be afraid. I love you Jesus, I am blown away that you love me too. I thank you.
After church the 7th grade students all went across the street to incredible pizza. This is an old warehouse turned into pizza buffet, video games, go-carts, mini-golf, bumper cars, mini-bowling, etc SUPER COOL HANG OUT PLACE” I would have to say we had about 20-25 students who went. I was able to sit kind of in the middle between the boy and girls. Everyone was excited to see me and we enjoyed some great pizza and cookies. Kids are so funny, I was sitting there and I received a text message, so I got my phone out and they were like “COOL, is that your phone?” (It was time for me to upgrade my phone and service. The 6 month period of my great friend Stephen had come to an end. He was grateful enough to pay for my phone bill for the past 6 months. In the process, my brother-in-law is getting a Smartphone he had received broken repaired, and was going to let me have it. So, I got a new phone from Verizon for only 10 bucks, and it’s pretty cool!) I was like; “YES” I think I scored some cool points with them. After we ate, we played some games, and I watched the kids mostly. Well God, you know my heart, my desires, and I just pray again that you will use this time for your glory and nothing more.
I am beginning to love my time with the youth at FBC Euless more and more everyday. Yesterday, Kent our youth pastor finished up the series on Joseph. I have to admit, I was a little disappointed knowing that I would not be able to teach my students the final lesson. The final lesson was on forgiveness, and its amazing how I may have been the only one in that huge room that needed to hear that. At this point in my life, I am in completely aware that I have some people to ask forgiveness of. I believe the struggles in which I am enduring are a result of that wall I have built up. I guess I figured that it would only hurt them in the long run. I am wrong for even thinking that way, because it is hurting me the most. That hurt has affected people in my life right now, even the most closest. I was always hearing of the high’s and Low’s of seminary. I was always just so confident “I’m the big bad football player, who is tough” well The High’s have been high, and the Low’s are low. I currently am experiencing a low. I am in a constant struggle with wanting to press on or pull back. See in the past, if hard times came, I would tuck my tail and run as fast as possible. These past few years, I have been strong, confident, moving forward. My desire is to continue that path. My prayer is that God would re-ignite the flame that is inside of me. I understand that my walk with my creator is not always going to be easy. I think about Sage and when he discipled me. How he always shared with me his “life verse” It is found in James.
Trials and Temptations 2Consider it pure joy, my brothers, whenever you face trials of many kinds, 3because you know that the testing of your faith develops perseverance. 4Perseverance must finish its work so that you may be mature and complete, not lacking anything. 5If any of you lacks wisdom, he should ask God, who gives generously to all without finding fault, and it will be given to him. 6But when he asks, he must believe and not doubt, because he who doubts is like a wave of the sea, blown and tossed by the wind. 7That man should not think he will receive anything from the Lord; 8he is a double-minded man, unstable in all he does. 9The brother in humble circumstances ought to take pride in his high position. 10But the one who is rich should take pride in his low position, because he will pass away like a wild flower. 11For the sun rises with scorching heat and withers the plant; its blossom falls and its beauty is destroyed. In the same way, the rich man will fade away even while he goes about his business. 12Blessed is the man who perseveres under trial, because when he has stood the test, he will receive the crown of life that God has promised to those who love him. 13When tempted, no one should say, "God is tempting me." For God cannot be tempted by evil, nor does he tempt anyone; 14but each one is tempted when, by his own evil desire, he is dragged away and enticed. 15Then, after desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin; and sin, when it is full-grown, gives birth to death. 16Don't be deceived, my dear brothers. 17Every good and perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of the heavenly lights, who does not change like shifting shadows. 18He chose to give us birth through the word of truth, that we might be a kind of firstfruits of all he created.
Listening and Doing 19My dear brothers, take note of this: Everyone should be quick to listen, slow to speak and slow to become angry, 20for man's anger does not bring about the righteous life that God desires. 21Therefore, get rid of all moral filth and the evil that is so prevalent and humbly accept the word planted in you, which can save you. 22Do not merely listen to the word, and so deceive yourselves. Do what it says. 23Anyone who listens to the word but does not do what it says is like a man who looks at his face in a mirror 24and, after looking at himself, goes away and immediately forgets what he looks like. 25But the man who looks intently into the perfect law that gives freedom, and continues to do this, not forgetting what he has heard, but doing it—he will be blessed in what he does. 26If anyone considers himself religious and yet does not keep a tight rein on his tongue, he deceives himself and his religion is worthless. 27Religion that God our Father accepts as pure and faultless is this: to look after orphans and widows in their distress and to keep oneself from being polluted by the world.
As I read this again, I am still at awe at what God has for my life. The scripture is Truth, and it equips me for everything in my life. If I need wisdom, than ask! If I need to be kicked in the teeth, than kick me. Allow, me to read this and be confident in what it says, that the testing of my faith develops perseverance, nothing more. (that’s good Aaron) Verse 6 “But when he asks, he must believe and not doubt, because he who doubts is like a wave of the sea, blown and tossed by the wind” Total surrender, total assurance that God is in control, and that I must totally believe that. I do, trust me, its just during these trials, the devil tries to get you to not. If your reading this, please pray for me. This past week as been the hardest week since I have been out here. (more like the past 3) If you would pray that God would just completely humble me and allow me to remain like that. My one desire should be Jesus Christ. I can admit, that recently I have not been living like that. Today, not fully understanding, but making a commitment to stop, breath, and know that God does have a plan for my life. He has never left nor forsaken me, and that he is building me up even more right now, it just may take some time to see that. I have places in my life that I must seek forgiveness from people, and also forgive people. God, please allow me to do that and not be afraid. I love you Jesus, I am blown away that you love me too. I thank you.
After church the 7th grade students all went across the street to incredible pizza. This is an old warehouse turned into pizza buffet, video games, go-carts, mini-golf, bumper cars, mini-bowling, etc SUPER COOL HANG OUT PLACE” I would have to say we had about 20-25 students who went. I was able to sit kind of in the middle between the boy and girls. Everyone was excited to see me and we enjoyed some great pizza and cookies. Kids are so funny, I was sitting there and I received a text message, so I got my phone out and they were like “COOL, is that your phone?” (It was time for me to upgrade my phone and service. The 6 month period of my great friend Stephen had come to an end. He was grateful enough to pay for my phone bill for the past 6 months. In the process, my brother-in-law is getting a Smartphone he had received broken repaired, and was going to let me have it. So, I got a new phone from Verizon for only 10 bucks, and it’s pretty cool!) I was like; “YES” I think I scored some cool points with them. After we ate, we played some games, and I watched the kids mostly. Well God, you know my heart, my desires, and I just pray again that you will use this time for your glory and nothing more.
Monday, September 8, 2008
"Winter Hefty"..."Summer Hefty"
As you can see from the picture, we had a little fun this past Friday at work. If you will notice, the picture "Winter Hefty" was taken around Feburary or March. The "Summer Hefty" was taken on September 5th. It may be hard to tell, but I have lost around 50 pounds this summer.
At the beginning of the summer I attended a meeting over at the World’s Mission Center. The area recruiter for the International Missions Board was in town and had a brief meeting. During the meeting, I began to realize the many things you have to do before you become a full-time missionary. The two things that stood out the most, was the financial debt and your body weight. The height and weight scale I noticed again that I exceeded both of them. I noticed again that the highest height was 6’3’’, 233 pounds. Well, I figured all the weights were increasing in increments of 10-12 pounds. I thought to myself, I am 6’4’’ and so I need to be around 245. Ok. I went home that night, and I got onto a scale, and vomited onto it. (no not really, but I felt like I should of) I weighed in at a “Hefty” amount of 330. I was devastated to say the least. I have never in my life weighed that much. I was really bummed for about 5 minutes, and than I spark was lite inside of me. The kind I used to have when I played college football. I was house sitting that weekend, and they had an elliptical machine. I took my IPod with me that night, and worked out for over an hour on it. I spent time in prayer and told God, Hey, you got me here, you have called me to this, so I am willing to do whatever it takes. I knew praying that, it would involve intense life changes. The first thing that I did was stop drinking caffeine, including all soft drinks. I next went to Wal-Mart and bought some healthy food. One thing that I knew I would have to do was eat smaller, healthier, and more frequent meals. The must effective life change I made was making a commitment to going to the RAC (recreational aerobics center) and working out every chance I get. Most importantly, I made a commitment to my Father in Heaven, that if He continues to open the doors in which are leading to the mission field; I will continue to getting in shape. With an obedient heart, I have dropped 50 pounds so far. I weighed in on Saturday, at 280 pounds. So, I ask that you are encouraged by this, simply to know, that if we stop and listen to God, he is faithful to reveal to us, his will for our lives. Please continue to pray for me, I am in prayer for you. If you have anything you need prayer for, please contact me. God Bless.
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